IMPROVE YOUR WRITING: SPELLING RULES YOU SHOULD KNOW

Although English is a language with more exceptions than rules, we can improve our spelling by learning some basic rules and hope that the word we don't know follows the pattern.

1. The sound /ɪ/ ="ie", except after c

believe - receive

2. Plurals: changing "Y" into "IES"

When the word ends in a vowel + y just add ‘s’:

key → keys

delay → delays

trolley → trolleys

(because we can't have three vowels in a row)

If the word has a consonant before the ‘Y’, remove the ‘Y’ and add ‘IES’:

baby → babies

company → companies

difficulty → difficulties

3. Adding -ES to words ending in -s, -ss, -z -ch -sh -x:

This was added to stop the plural 's' clashing with these letters and it softens the 's' sound to a 'z' sound

bus→ buses

business → businesses

watch → watches

box → boxes

quiz → quizzes

4. The "consonant:vowel:consonant" doubling up rule:

put - putting, big-bigger, quiz - quizzes, swim - swimming...

When a word has one syllable and it ends in "consonant:vowel:consonant", we double up the final consonant with a vowel suffix:

sit - sitter, big - biggest, tap - tapping, shop - shopper/shopping, fat - fatten, fattening, fatter, fattest...

This happens in longer words when the stress is on the final syllable:

begin (beGIN) - beginner, beginning

refer (reFER) - referring, referred

occur (ocCUR) - occurring, occurred, occurrence

5. Drop the ‘e’ rule

We usually drop the final silent "e" when we add vowel suffix endings, for example:

write + ing → writing

hope + ed = hoped

excite + able = excitable

joke - joker

large - largish

close - closing

sense + ible = sensible

opposite + ion = opposition

imagine + ation = imagination

We keep the 'e' if the word ends in –CE or –GE to keep a soft sound, with able/ous

courage + ous = courageous

outrage + ous = outrageous

notice + able = noticeable

manage + able = manageable

6. Changing the "y" to "i" when adding suffix endings:

If a word ends in a consonant + Y, the Y changes to I (unless adding endings with "i": -ing/-ish, which already begins with an i)

beauty+ful > beauti+ful =beautiful, beautify, beautician

happy + ness = - happiness, happily, happier, happiest

angry + er = angrier, angriest, angrily,

pretty: prettier, prettiest BUT prettyish

ready: readily, readiness

dry: dried, BUT drying, dryish

defy: defies, defied, but defying

apply: applies, applied but applying

7. "-f" to "-ves" or "-s": Most words ending in "-f" or "-fe" change their plurals to "-ves"

calf - calves

half - halves

knife - knives

leaf - leaves

loaf - loaves

life - lives

wife - wives

shelf - shelves

thief - thieves

yourself - yourselves

BUT nouns which end in two vowels plus -f usually form plurals in the normal way, with just an -s:

chief - chiefs

spoof - spoofs

roof - roofs

chief - chiefs

oaf - oafs

EXCEPTIONS: thief - thieves, leaf - leaves

Some words can have both endings -ves or -s:

scarf - scarfs/scarves

dwarf - dwarfs/dwarves

wharf - wharfs/wharves

handkerchief - handkerchiefs/handkerchieves

Words ending in -ff you just add -s to make the plural:

cliff - cliffs

toff - toffs

scuff - scuffs

sniff - sniffs

8. Words ending in -ful

The suffix –FUL is always spelled with one L, for example:

grate + ful = grateful

faith + ful = faithful

hope + ful = hopeful

careful

helpful

useful

grateful

9. Adding -ly

When we add -ly to words ending in -ful then we have double "l":

gratefully

faithfully

hopefully

We also add -ly to words ending in 'e':

love + ly = lovely

like + ly = likely

live + ly = lively

complete + ly = completely

definite + ly = definitely

BUT not in truly (true + ly) This is a common misspelled word.

We change the end 'e' to 'y' in these "-le" words:

gentle > gently

idle > idly

subtle > subtly

10. When we add "all" to the beginning of words we drop the "l":

all + so = also

all + most = almost

although

always

almighty

already

alright 

altogether (adverb=in total, on the whole, completely)

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SEPARATING WORDS AT THE END OF A LINE

This is not easy, so I always recommend my students never to divide a word at the end of a line. But in case you are wondering what the rules are, here you are:

1. Divide the word between syllables. This means, of course, that one-syllable words are never divided.

Incorrect:	Incorrect:	Correct:
sp- orts	su- pport	sup- port

2. The hyphen goes at the end of the first line.

Incorrect:	Correct:
sup -port	sup- port

3. Prefixes and suffixes make natural divisions.

Incorrect:	Correct:
in- ternational	inter- national

                                                                                     (The prefix is inter.)

4. There should be at least two letters plus the hyphen on the first line and three letters on the second.

Incorrect:	Incorrect:	Correct:
e- lect	supposed- ly	sup- posedly

5. Do not divide proper nouns or proper adjectives.

Incorrect:	Correct:
Wash- ington	Washington

6. Divide hyphenated word using the hyphen already in the word.

Incorrect:	Correct:
moth- er-in-law	mother- in-law

7. Do not divide a word at the end of a line if the parts of the word will be on two separate pages. This is hard for the reader to follow.

WRITING A BASIC DESCRIPTION ABOUT YOURSELF

Answer these questions about yourself on a piece of paper.

• How old are you?
• What do you look like?
• What kind of clothes do you usually wear? Why?
• 
  
• What kind of job do you do? Do you like it?
• What are your favorite hobbies? Why do you like them?
• Where do you live?
• Do you like living there? Why or why not?

Now that you have the information about yourself ready, fill in the gaps in to complete this descriptive paragraph about yourself.

I am _________ years old, I _________________ (your looks). I wear ________________ because ______________. I am a ______________. I like / don't like my job because _____________________. I enjoy ______________. I often _____________ (describe how often you practise your hobby). I also like ________________ (write about another hobby) because ________________. I live in ____________. People in ____________ are ________________ . I enjoy / don't enjoy living in ______________ because ____________.

Model answer:

I am 35 years old, I am tall and thin. I usually wear comfortable clothes  because I work at home . I am a computer engineer. I like my job because there is always something new going on. In my free time, I enjoy playing chess. I often play chess online with my father. I also like going to the gym because I need to do some exercise. I live in Inca. People in Inca are quite friendly. I enjoy living there because flats are cheap and I can buy fresh food at the market every Thursday.

Tips for Writing a Personal Description about Yourself

• Use 'come from' for the city or country where you were born. Use 'live' for the city where you currently live.
• Use the present simple tense to explain what you do every day.
• Use 'have' or 'have got' to speak about your children, pets, etc.
• Use 'a' the first time you mention something. For example, I live in a house. Then use 'the' after the first time you write about it. For example, I live in a house. The house is in Seattle.
• Remember to use he, his, him for boys and men and she, her, her for girls and women. Use 'our' when speaking about the whole family.
• Use 'like + verb ending in -ing' when speaking about hobbies.

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SKELETAL SYSTEMS OF TWO EARLY TYPES OF HUMAN

Question

The diagram shows the skeletal systems of two ancestors of modern human beings.
Write a 150-word report for a university lecturer describing the diagram and making comparisons where relevant.

Model Answer

Variations in the skeletal systems of two early types of human are illustrated in this diagram. Overall, we can see that australopithecus afarensis had a heavier body and much longer arms, while homo erectus was slimmer and had more developed joints.

To begin with the upper half of the body, australopithecus afarensis had a much broader chest and waist than homo erectus, giving it a rounder appearance. The former had much longer arms and larger hands, which would have been useful for climbing trees.

As for the lower half of the body, we can see that homo erectus had proportionately longer legs and larger hip, knee and ankle joints. The feet of homo erectus were also smaller and more arched, with shorter toes. These differences meant that homo erectus was better suited to long-distance running.

In conclusion, we can see significant changes in the development of early humans from the diagram. Homo erectus is more similar to contemporary human beings with its long legs and arched feet. The physical differences are clearly related to differences in the lifestyles of tree climbers and endurance runners.

(183 words, IELTS 8.0-C1)

 

Why does this answer get an IELTS Band 8 score-C1?

Task achievement: The model answer selects only the most important information from the diagram and uses this to make several direct comparisons. The physical differences are clearly connected to the description of each creatures’s lifestyle, providing a very rounded answer. The length is sufficient.

Coherence and cohesion: The model answer is divided into clear paragraphs with a logical separation between the body paragraphs. There is a general overview in paragraph 1 and a summary in paragraph 4. A reference link, the former, is used to avoid over-repetition of the names of the creatures.

Lexical resource: The model answer adds more vocabulary not in the diagram such as lifestyle, proportionately, suited, appearance and contemporary. There are also attempts to paraphrase such as wide > broad and endurance > long-distance.

Grammatical range and accuracy: The model answer uses comparative structures accurately. The temptation to list all the features in repetitive structures is avoided. A variety of grammatical devices are used to extend sentences, including with, which and -ing clauses.

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THE CARBON CYCLE IN NATURE

Question

The diagram below illustrates the carbon cycle in nature.
Write a 150-word description of this diagram for a university lecturer.

© The National Center for Atmospheric Research

Model Answer

The diagram shows how carbon moves through various stages to form a complete cycle. This report will give a brief description of the main stages in this cycle.

First, we can see that energy from the sun is transformed into organic carbon through a process in plants known as photosynthesis. This organic carbon is then transferred underground when plants, and the animals that feed on them, die and decay. Some of this carbon is trapped underground in the form of fossils and fossil fuels.

Carbon is also released back into the atmosphere, however, through various means. One is when animals and plants respire, and another is when humans burn fossil fuels in cars and factories. All this carbon enters the atmosphere as CO2. It is then reabsorbed by plants, and the cycle begins again.

In short, we can see that carbon moves in a natural cycle, although human factors may now be affecting the balance.

(154 words, IELTS 8.0-C1)

 

Why does this Task 1 answer get an IELTS Band 8 score-C1?

Task achievement: The model answer selects and describes most components of the diagram except for waste products and ocean uptake. There is an overall description of the cycle followed by a clearly sequenced and divided description of the stages. The summary identifies something noteworthy about the diagram. The length is sufficient.

Coherence and cohesion: The model answer is divided into clear paragraphs with a logical separation between the body paragraphs and connective markers first, then, however, and in short. There is a general overview in paragraph 1 and a summary in paragraph 4. Referencing techniques such as ellipsis (one is…) are used to avoid over-repetition of key words.

Lexical resource: The writer makes good use of the language in the diagram and is also able to change forms in the case of respiration > respire. The writer also introduces a range of verbs for describing a process or cycle such as transform, transfer and release.

Grammatical range and accuracy: The model answer demonstrates accurate usage of a wide range of forms including countable/uncountable nouns, active/passive structures, and transitive/intransitive verbs.

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HOW ELECTRICITY IS GENERATED BY A HYDROELECTRIC DAM

Question

The diagram shows how electricity is generated by a hydroelectric dam.
Write a 150-word report for a university lecturer explaining how the process works.

Model Answer

The diagram illustrates the basic principles of hydroelectric power. The process requires the construction of a large dam connected to a powerhouse. The dam creates a large reservoir and the powerhouse is where the electricity is generated.

First of all, water trapped in the reservoir behind the dam is forced through an intake. It then flows into a narrow chamber called a penstock, where the resulting high pressure turns a turbine. The turbine is connected to a generator in the powerhouse above, and this is where the movement of the turbine is converted into electricity. The resulting electricity leaves the powerhouse via cables that carry it over long distances to where it can be used.

It is interesting to note that a hydroelectric dam creates no harmful byproducts and relies entirely on natural forces to produce electricity. After the turbine stage, water flows out through a second channel and into a river. The process is renewable, thanks to the water cycle in nature.

(163 words, IELTS 8.0-C1)

Why does this  answer get an IELTS Band 8 score-C1?

Task achievement: The introduction paraphrases the question and describes the constituent parts of the process. The body describes each stage of the process in sequence.

Coherence and cohesion: The model answer has an introduction, body and conclusion. Sequencing expressions such as first of all, then and after are used appropriately. The articles a and the are used effectively to introduce and refer back to different elements of the process.

Lexical resource: The labels in the diagram are well integrated into the model answer and appropriate verbs such as converted, flows and leaves are used throughout. Less-common words such as byproducts and renewable are introduced by the writer. Spelling is always accurate.

Grammatical range and accuracy: The writer uses the present simple tense and has good control of subject-verb agreement and active/passive forms. A good balance of simple and complex sentences is used throughout.

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CONSUMPTION OF RENEWABLE ENERGY

Question

The diagram shows the consumption of renewable energy in the USA from 1949-2008.
Write a 150-word report for a university lecturer identifying the main trends and making comparisons where relevant.

Model Answer

The line graph shows growth in the consumption of renewable energy during the period 1949-2008 in the USA. The results are also broken down by source.

The first thing to note is that renewable energy use more than doubled over the period, with particularly strong growth in biofuels. This sector did not exist in 1980 but experienced a steep rise during the 2000s to over one quadrillion Btu per year. This made biofuels a serious challenger to both wood and hydroelectric power, which both saw only limited growth overall. The former grew steadily between 1975 and 1985, but then slipped back to around its original level of 1.8 quadrillion Btu. The latter began the period at the same level as wood but experienced more substantial growth. However, it also fell back to around 2 quadrillion Btu, with a particularly sharp drop in the late 1990s.

Finally, wind power emerged late in the period but showed a gradual rise to around 0.5 quadrillion Btu, suggesting that it, along with biofuels, will replace wood and hydroelectricity as the main sources of renewable every in the future.

(184 words, IELTS 8.0-C1)

Why does this  answer get an IELTS Band 8 score-C1?

Task achievement: The model answer describes the overall trend first, followed by an analysis of the different energy sources. Numerical evidence is used sparingly to illustrate the trends. The main trends are used as the basis of a prediction in the final sentence.

Coherence and cohesion: Trends are explained in general terms first, followed by supporting figures. Some energy sources are grouped together for ease of understanding. It and this are used throughout as cohesive devices, and the writer uses the former and the latter to refer back to information in a previous sentence.

Lexical resource: The writer uses a wide range of vocabulary to describe change, including adjectives and adverbs such as limited, substantial and particularly sharp, and verbs such as doubled, slipped and emerged.

Grammatical range and accuracy: The model answer is free from grammatical errors. Sentence forms are complex and include relative clauses and linking words such as with. The candidate makes use of past, present and future tenses. Punctuation is also used carefully and accurately throughout.

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ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION AND EXPENSE AT A HOUSEHOLD

Question

The bar chart shows the relative electricity consumption and cost per year of various household devices.

Write a 150-word report for a university lecturer explaining the data and making comparisons where relevant.

Model Answer

The bar chart compares the energy consumption and expense of operating 16 different items of household equipment. Overall, we can see significant differences in both cost and consumption.

To begin with, there are some common household items which consume relatively little energy. These include an electric blanket (approx. $10 or 100kwh/year), a microwave oven (approx. $15 or 150kwh/year) and a television (approx. $17 or 170kwh/year).

By contrast, devices that might be classified as ‘luxury’ items such as a pool pump or spa are comparatively expensive and energy-intensive, at nearly $125 or 1500kwh/year and around $190 or 2225kwh/year respectively.

It is interesting to note that even among household items normally considered alike, such as a microwave and refrigerator, there are enormous discrepancies in cost and energy use. The former uses only around $15 or 150kwh/year, while the latter consumes at least six times that amount at $90 or 1150kwh/year.

In conclusion, it appears that there is no clear pattern in the relative energy consumption of domestic equipment, although households had better be aware of the high running costs of luxury items such as a pool pump and spa.

(187 words, IELTS 8.5-C1+)

Why does this answer get an IELTS Band 8 score (C1+)?

Task achievement: The model answer presents an overall description first, followed by key supporting details that illustrate the main trend.

Coherence and cohesion: The model answer is divided into clear paragraphs and each paragraph contains one main idea. There are cohesive links between paragraphs. A variety of reference links are used throughout, including the former, the latter, and respectively.

Lexical resource: The language in the question is effectively paraphrased. Synonyms are introduced for key concepts such as electricity consumption > energy use and cost > expense. Some less-common words such as discrepancies and energy-intensive are used.

Grammatical range and accuracy: The model answer is free from grammatical errors. Sentences tend to consist of multiple clauses. Paragraphs contain a variety of sentence structures.

EXPLAINING DATA FROM DIAGRAMS AND CHARTS

Introducing the topic

• The graph shows… / The table reveals…
• The chart displays… / The diagram illustrates…
• Some interesting facts concerning… are revealed in the diagram.
• Several key trends are revealed by the graph showing…

Introducing the first set of data

• Beginning with the…
• To begin with the…
• Let me begin by describing the…

Introducing the second set of data

• Meanwhile, the…  shows that…
• As for the… , it shows that…
• Turning to the… , it can be seen that…

Introducing the first major trend

• First of all, it is clear that…
• Most noticeably of all, it can be seen that…
• The first result worth pointing out is that…

Introducing lesser trends

• Another trend that can be observed is that…
• It is also worth pointing out that…
• Also worth noting is that…

Exceptions to the main trend

• However, this was not always the case.
• However, it should be pointed out that…
• There was one noticeable exception, however.

Comparing and contrasting

• Similarly, … / By contrast, …
• A similar trend can be observed in…
• The results for… , however, reveal a markedly different trend.

Adding figures

• The figures were X and Y respectively.
• …, at X. / …, with Y. (Usage note: use ‘at’ when you mean ‘the figure was’; use ‘with’ when you mean ‘something had’)
• …, at/with X and Y respectively.

Concluding and summarising

• To sum up, … / In summary, … / In short, …
• On the whole, …
• The main thing that can be observed here is that…

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WRITING: A REAL EXAM ANSWER, C2 LEVEL

TASK: Write 250-270 words on the following subject.  

You have 90 minutes.

This is a real exam answer which was singled out by the teacher:

The University. An exhausted institution?

I am writing to reflect on the worrying situation of the University as an institution in this country. Some weeks ago, I was reading through a survey from an American magazine that had made a ranking of the top universities worldwide and I learned that no Spanish Universities were even close to the top 100. I must admit that the information did not take me by surprise, for it is widely acknowledged that the quality of University in Spain leaves much to be desired.

As we all know, the international recession, together with a crisis of our own have forced most autonomous governments to increase enrolment fees dramatically. In some cases, fees have gone up by as much as 40% in a country that is facing a record high 26% unemployment rate. Never before has unemployment shown such figures and therefore, never before have the Spanish people had so little money in their pockets to afford paying for these rising university fees.

I strongly advise our autonomous governments to reconsider their position on this issue. Education is the future of any developed country worthy of the name and, by increasing fees and applying cutbacks, we are seriously jeopardising the viability of the Spanish University and of the educational system as a whole. Severe cutbacks in university budgets are bound to affect quality standards, as our best professors will be tempted to seek better career opportunities in other European or international universities, where they can get a fair salary and where research funding is respected. Should this happen, a whole generation of Spaniards would be condemned to an education of mediocrity and the Spanish University would become an exhausted institution, unable to form competent professionals for the future.

Consequently, I seriously doubt that we will have any university making it into the top 200 if the autonomous governments do not change their policies.

 Ángel Alonso Cabirta, C2. March, 2013 

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WRITING PRACTICE, C2 LEVEL

TASK: Write 250-270 words on the following subject. 
You have 90 minutes.

This is a real exam answer which was singled out by the teacher:

THE UNIVERSITY – AN EXHAUSTED INSTITUTION?

The first universities mushroomed during the Middle Ages in the heart of Old Europe. A strong need to share wisdom and to create knowledge was the seed of important institutions such as the Sorbonne University or Salamanca University. For the first time, a group of students could follow an operation in the magnum room at Bologna faculty of Medicine.

Buildings to teach different specialties were developed together along with some lodging and sport facilities. The concept of university campus appeared as a place to cultivate our souls and bodies, remembering the satiric Roman writer Juvenalis statement ‘mens sana in corpore sano’. Universities in modern times have become a melting pot, a place not only to learn but to enrich lives through personal contact with other students and members of staff.

On the contrary, some universities are severely overcrowded nowadays. High rates of unemployment have put aside young people into universities, especially in places such as Sicily or Andalusia.

Suddenly a new model of university has appeared with the new Millennium. The revolution of Internet has completely changed the learning process and the way of communicating. Universities such as UOC or Udima, just to name a few, have skyrocketed their number of students in the last years. Notwithstanding the distance, pupils may follow their lessons and work in groups.

But is the old model of university an exhausted institution? There are some pros and cons for each model of institution. A traditional university on campus may foster long lasting relationships since physical contact is very important in the development of our own personality. It is also necessary for scientific specialties in order to carry out some tests or experiments. On the other side, on-line universities are doing well in teaching arts-related specialties. They are also appropriate to create a more proactive approach of the students towards the learning process.

In the near future we will see traditional and on-line universities teaching happily together.

José María Jiménez, C2. March 2013

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EXPRESSING OPINIONS: USE THESE CONNECTORS TO LINK YOUR IDEAS!

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WRITING: USE CONNECTORS!

You'll find examples of how to collocate these connectors in a post we published in July 2011.
Click on the label "CONNECTORS" and you'll see them!

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HOW TO E-MAIL YOUR TEACHER

Teachers may or may not be adept at using email, in terms of technological savvy. However, teachers that are email savvy have certain expectations for the messages they receive from students. We'll help you understand those expectations.

1. Use an account with a formal name. People are deluged with emails every day, and by using an account that looks formal, you'll have a better chance of avoiding your professor skipping right over your email because it's an unknown address or because it looks too informal.

2. Include a meaningful subject line. While this is true of every email you send (that you wish to be read), it's especially important when you're attempting to communicate with somebody whose day is busy enough as it is.

• If your teacher does not already have a preferred convention then a good default is to start with the class you are in and then the topic of your email. For example, "ENGLISH C2-C: Question about essay" would be an excellent way to fill in the subject line. With the name on your account and your well-titled subject, the teacher knows who you are and exactly what you want, even before they click "Open." This helps the teacher organize and prioritize student emails.
• Never send a message with no subject line.

3. Always use a greeting. Do not begin with "Hey" or similar colloquialism. Generally speaking you should use "Mr. Last-name", for regular teachers, or "Dear Professor Last-name" if he is a University teacher. When the professor has a PhD, the  honorific is "Dear Dr. Last-name".

Do not use the teacher's first name unless you have been explicitly invited to do so. And please, spell your teacher's name correctly.

4. Briefly and politely state the reason why you are emailing. Offer only relevant information. Be sure to include the name or number of the course you are writing about in the body of the email as well as in the subject line.

5. If you are emailing with a problem, suggest a solution. Be considerate of how your solution might create additional work for the teacher.

6. Sign it with your name. Use first and last name, and if you think there is any chance that your teacher may not be able to place you, include your course information below your name.

7. Read it over. If you do not have spell-check on your email, you might copy the message and paste it into a word processing program and run spell-check there. Consider not only the mechanics, but what you have said. Strive for a polite tone, concise language, and clear purpose.

8. If the issue is touchy, or the email long, ask someone else to read it too. Ask if your reader would be offended by such an email if it were directed at him or her. If you have a complaint or have strong negative feelings that you are trying to resolve, email is probably not your best avenue. You need to have a conversation with the teacher, and email is only one-way (at a time). You may email to tell your teacher that you feel a need to talk about the issue, and ask to set up an office visit or phone conversation, but it is best not to write anything that you might regret later.

9. Allow adequate time for a reply.  Leave enough time for a response. Some teachers may not have Internet access at home, so you may need to wait a few days. If more than a few days have passed and you have not got a response, it is appropriate to ask him about it. It may be more effective to follow up by phone or by office visit. Don't be afraid to speak up or send a reminder. If you are only sending a piece of information ("I have the flu and will not be in class on Tuesday, but Sue will turn in my paper for me.") the professor may not consider a reply necessary. In this case, you are done.

10. Once a reply has been received, acknowledge it. A simple, "Thank you" may be enough. If necessary, write a more extensive email using these same guidelines to achieve a professional effect. If the case is not being adequately resolved by email, ask for an appointment to meet in person. 
Samples:
http://www.wikihow.com/Sample/Email-Professor-Asking-for-Notes
http://www.wikihow.com/Sample/Email-Professor-Asking-for-a-Favor
http://www.wikihow.com/Sample/Email-Professor-About-a-Question

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WRITING: A REPORT

Structure of a report:                                        

Title of the report:

To:

From:

Subject:

Date:

Reason of writing (Introduction)

• The aim/objective/purpose of this report is to compare/examine/evaluate/describe/outline (some suggestions)/analyse (some suggestions)/expose/present/give information on/regarding the/recommend/consider/suggest
• This report aims to... etc.
• Nouns: information (remember: not informations), ideas, suggestions, situations, conditions, comments
• in order to improve/decide
• In case of survey/discussion: It is based on a survey conducted among/It is the result of a discussion which took place among

Body (2 paragraphs maximum)

• Headings from the task
• It should be considered, it is worth considering
• The first observation to make is (concerns)
• First of all/Firstly
• Secondly/ Furthermore/Moreover
• Lastly/Finally
• In fact
• According to (the majority of respondents)
• However, although, alternatively
• In spite of (the fact [that])/Despite (the fact [that]) + Noun, Pronoun or ...ing
• Predicting the future: The outlook for ... is (far from [+ing]) bright/optimistic/depressing/daunting
• The future looks bleak/remains uncertain/is promising
• This seems unlikely in the near/foreseable future
• It has been stressed that

Making/giving recommendations

• I would strongly recommend that ... should + bare infinitive
• In the light of the results of the survey I would advise against...
• I feel it would be to our advantage if...
• The best solution is/would be to...
• This will have an impact on + noun

Conclusion(s)

• As long as/provided that these recommendations are taken into consideration
• In conclusion...
• The reseach shows/demonstrates
• From the research/the evidence we conclude that    
  
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